Reservations explained simply: who gets what, and the certificates

Few topics in India cause as many arguments as reservations. Yet many people who argue about them have never read what the Constitution says. If you are applying for a government job, a college seat or a scholarship, knowing how reservations work can decide whether you get a seat you are entitled to. This guide explains the idea, who benefits, the limits set by the courts, and the practical steps.

The idea behind reservations

Art 14 promises equality before the law. But equality does not mean treating everyone alike when they start from very different places. For centuries, caste decided who could study, own land or hold office. A race is not fair if some runners begin many kilometres behind.

So the Constitution lets the State make special provisions for groups that have been held back. Art 15(4) allows special provisions in education for socially and educationally backward classes, Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs). Art 16(4) allows reservation in government posts for backward classes not adequately represented in the services. Art 46 asks the State to promote the educational and economic interests of weaker sections. The Supreme Court has repeatedly said these are not exceptions to equality; they are a way of achieving real equality.

Who is covered and how much

For central government jobs and central educational institutions (such as central universities, IITs and AIIMS), the shares are:

• Scheduled Castes: 15 per cent.
• Scheduled Tribes: 7.5 per cent.
• Other Backward Classes (OBCs): 27 per cent, only for those outside the creamy layer.
• Economically Weaker Sections (EWS): up to 10 per cent, for people not covered by SC, ST or OBC reservation, whose family income is below the limit (8 lakh rupees a year for central purposes) and who do not own land or property above the limits set in the scheme.

The EWS quota came through the 103rd Constitutional Amendment in 2019, which added Art 15(6) and Art 16(6). The Supreme Court upheld it in Janhit Abhiyan v Union of India (2022).

Within each category, 4 per cent of posts and 5 per cent of seats go to persons with benchmark disabilities under the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016. Many states also reserve posts for women and for ex-servicemen. These "horizontal" reservations cut across the caste categories.

States set their own lists. The castes recognised as OBC, and even the percentages, differ from state to state for state jobs and state colleges. A caste that is OBC in one state may not be on the central OBC list at all. Always read the notification for the exam you are taking.

The limits set by the courts

The leading case is Indra Sawhney v Union of India (1992), often called the Mandal case. A nine-judge bench held that OBC reservation is valid, but the creamy layer must be excluded, and that total reservation should normally not exceed 50 per cent except in extraordinary situations.

Creamy layer means the better-off among OBCs. The test looks at your parents' position (for example, a senior government post, or a constitutional office) and at family income. For central purposes the income limit has been 8 lakh rupees a year since 2017; as of 2026 a revision has been recommended by a parliamentary committee but the central limit has not been changed. The way income is counted has detailed rules (salary and agricultural income are treated differently), so read the current government guidance or ask the issuing office.

In State of Punjab v Davinder Singh (2024), a seven-judge bench held that states may sub-classify Scheduled Castes so that the most disadvantaged groups within them get a fair share, provided the sub-classification rests on data. How each state applies this is still evolving.

Step by step: getting the right certificate

Most rejections happen at document verification, not at the exam. Start early; a certificate can take two to four weeks and sometimes longer.

1. Find out what the notification wants. Central posts usually require the central format (for OBC, a non-creamy layer certificate "for central government posts"). State posts want the state format. Note the issuing authority named, and whether the certificate must be from a particular financial year.
2. Caste certificate (SC/ST/OBC): apply online on your state's e-district or citizen services portal, or at the Tehsildar, SDM or the officer your state names. You will typically need identity and address proof, proof of caste (a parent's or close relative's caste certificate, school records showing caste, or a village revenue record), a self-declaration and a passport photo.
3. OBC non-creamy layer certificate: this is separate from the caste certificate. It certifies that your family is outside the creamy layer for a given year. Take your parents' income papers and, if a parent is a government employee, their service details.
4. EWS certificate: an "Income and Asset Certificate" in the prescribed form, issued by the competent authority in your district (usually the Tehsildar or SDM). Carry income proof, land records and property papers for the whole family.
5. Check every entry on the certificate: spelling of your name as in your marksheets, caste name exactly as in the notified list, the correct format, seal and signature.
6. Keep copies and the acknowledgement of your application. Many portals let you track the status.